How Does Lack of Sanitation Affect Women in Rural India Today?

For rural women in India, the absence of a toilet is not just an inconvenience—it’s a daily battle for dignity, health, and safety.

Behind every missing toilet in rural India lies an untold story of lost education, silent suffering, and compromised dignity for women.

In 2025, millions of rural women still step into darkness each night, proving that lack of sanitation is more than a health issue—it’s a social injustice.

In this article, we will explore how poor sanitation impacts women in rural India through a sociological lens, uncovering hidden struggles and solutions.

Rural Indian woman walking on a village path carrying a water pot on her head, reflecting challenges of water access and sanitation — A young rural Indian woman carries a water pot on her head, walking along a village path with determination, symbolizing the daily struggle for basic sanitation and dignity.

How Does Lack of Sanitation Affect Women in Rural India? A Sociological Analysis

In 2025, lack of proper sanitation in rural India continues to impact women’s health, safety, education, and dignity.

Despite government schemes like the Swachh Bharat Mission, many toilets remain non-functional or unsafe, forcing women to face risks of disease, harassment, and school dropouts.

A sociological analysis reveals that poor sanitation is not just an infrastructure gap but a gendered issue rooted in patriarchy, caste, and inequality. Addressing it requires women-centered policies, community participation, and gender-sensitive toilets to ensure true empowerment and social justice.

Let’s analyze how the absence of proper sanitation in rural India affects women. Explore health consequences, cultural restrictions, education, violence and policy interventions. Sanitation is not just an infrastructure issue but a deeply gendered social problem.

Introduction: Why Sanitation is More Than Just Toilets

In 2025, sanitation remains one of the most pressing but under-discussed challenges for rural India, especially when it comes to women.

Imagine a young girl in a village who wakes up before sunrise, not for school, but to walk to a field far from her home just to relieve herself—because the family does not have a toilet. She risks safety, dignity and health every single day. This is not a rare story but a lived reality for millions.

Sanitation is often understood as an infrastructure problem—about building toilets and managing waste. But for women in rural India, sanitation is deeply linked with gender roles, cultural taboos, health, education and social inequalities.

Over the last decade, India has made massive strides under initiatives like the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM).

Officially, the government declared India “open defecation free” in 2019. But multiple reports from NGOs, surveys like NFHS-5 (2019–21), and follow-ups by independent organizations show that while access has improved, usage, maintenance, and gendered challenges remain unresolved.

Why does this matter? Because the lack of sanitation directly impacts women’s health, dignity, education, safety, and socio-economic opportunities. More importantly, sanitation is not just about toilets; it’s about social justice, gender equality, and human rights.

The Current Sanitation Scenario in Rural India (2025)

India has invested heavily in sanitation over the past decade. The Swachh Bharat Mission (Gramin), launched in 2014, aimed to make villages open-defecation free (ODF).

By 2019, the government claimed success, with over 100 million toilets built across rural households. However, independent evaluations show that toilet construction does not automatically mean toilet usage.

In 2025, the scenario is mixed:

Infrastructure growth: More rural households now have access to toilets than ever before. According to NFHS-5 (2019-21), about 80-83% of Indian households report having access to a toilet facility, while 19% still do not.
Usage gap: Studies reveal that cultural habits, poor construction quality, and lack of water facilities often discourage usage. In some villages, toilets become storage spaces instead of functional sanitation units.
Maintenance issues: Government-built toilets often lack proper sewage connections, leading to bad odor, overflow, and disuse. Without regular maintenance, families revert to open defecation.

For women, these gaps are particularly severe. A 2022 UNICEF report noted that women often avoid using community or shared toilets due to safety concerns, lack of privacy, or absence of menstrual hygiene facilities. This shows how sanitation is more than building toilets—it requires behavioral change, cultural acceptance, and gender-sensitive infrastructure.

By 2025, rural sanitation has certainly improved on paper, but the everyday lived experience of women reveals that the battle is far from won. Sanitation remains an unfinished agenda, especially in terms of gender equity.

Gendered Dimensions of Sanitation

Sanitation is not gender-neutral. While men and boys can often adjust to inadequate facilities, women face unique challenges rooted in biology, culture, and social norms.

Privacy and Dignity

For women, the lack of private toilets means going out in groups before dawn or after dusk to avoid being seen. This routine strips away their dignity and increases vulnerability to harassment.

Menstruation and Taboos

Menstruation adds another layer of difficulty. Without access to clean toilets or water, women struggle to manage periods hygienically. Many rural schools lack separate toilets for girls, leading to absenteeism during menstruation. The silence around menstruation also prevents open discussion and solutions.

Domestic Burden

Women are usually responsible for water collection. If toilets lack running water, they become the ones fetching water daily. This adds hours of unpaid labor to their workload.

Cultural and Social Restrictions

In many communities, women are expected to hide bodily functions. They eat less food or drink less water during the day to avoid defecating in the open, leading to dehydration and malnutrition.

The gendered dimension shows that sanitation is not only about health infrastructure but also about women’s rights, autonomy, and social recognition. Without addressing these, even the best-built toilets remain underused.

Health Consequences of Poor Sanitation

The lack of sanitation is not just inconvenient; it directly harms women’s health.

Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs) and Reproductive Health

Women who hold urine or delay defecation due to lack of toilets are highly prone to UTIs. Poor menstrual hygiene practices increase risks of reproductive tract infections (RTIs), infertility, and complications in pregnancy.

Maternal Health

Open defecation is linked to higher rates of maternal mortality. Pregnant women without safe sanitation facilities risk infections that can affect both mother and child. Poor sanitation significantly raises maternal mortality risks—women face over three times higher odds, with 8–15% of deaths in low-income countries linked to unhygienic childbirth and inadequate WASH conditions.

Child Health through Mothers

Women’s poor sanitation practices affect children too. Mothers facing hygiene issues are less likely to ensure clean practices for infants, contributing to diarrhea, malnutrition, and stunting among children.

Mental Health

Constant stress over safety and privacy creates anxiety, shame, and psychological trauma. Women often compromise hydration, leading to chronic weakness.

These health challenges show that sanitation is directly linked with women’s physical and mental well-being. In rural India, the cycle of poor sanitation, malnutrition, and maternal health problems becomes a trap of generational poverty and ill-health.

Education and Employment

Sanitation has a direct role in shaping women’s opportunities in education and work.

Girls’ Education: Lack of toilets in schools is one of the top reasons for girls dropping out after puberty. According to a study report, 23 million Indian girls leave school after reaching menstruation age due to inadequate sanitation facilities. Even those who stay often miss classes during their periods.
Impact on Employment: Women hesitate to take up jobs in fields, factories, or markets if there are no proper sanitation facilities. This reduces their participation in the workforce and limits financial independence.
Cycle of Inequality: Without education, girls have fewer opportunities for skilled jobs. Poor sanitation becomes a structural barrier to gender equality, reinforcing poverty and dependence.

Sanitation, therefore, is not only a health issue but also an economic and empowerment issue. Building gender-sensitive toilets in schools and workplaces is as crucial as any scholarship or employment scheme.

Safety, Violence and Dignity

Sanitation is also a safety and dignity issue for rural women.

Risk of Assault: When women go out for open defecation in isolated areas, they face threats of sexual harassment or assault. Reports from states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar highlight frequent cases of violence linked to lack of toilets.
Fear and Restrictions: To minimize risk, women often go in groups, restrict timings, or limit food intake. These coping strategies harm their health while reinforcing vulnerability.
Loss of Dignity: The inability to relieve oneself safely and privately is a direct violation of human dignity. It perpetuates shame and stigma.

In many ways, sanitation is about bodily autonomy and safety. Without safe sanitation, women are constantly exposed to risks that undermine their confidence and restrict their freedom.

A Sociological Lens – Patriarchy, Caste, and Inequality

Sanitation problems are not just technical—they are deeply tied to social structures.

Patriarchy: Women’s sanitation needs are often ignored in decision-making. Men dominate household and village-level decisions, leaving women’s voices unheard in infrastructure planning.
Caste System: Caste plays a major role in sanitation. Manual scavenging, cleaning of toilets, and waste disposal remain caste-based occupations. Dalit women often face double discrimination—excluded from sanitation facilities and burdened with cleaning tasks. Read Here: How Caste-Based Violence Affects Rural India.
Intersectionality: Poor women, Dalits, and Adivasis face layered disadvantages. Lack of resources, social exclusion, and discrimination make sanitation problems worse for them.
Cultural Norms: Taboos around menstruation and shame about bodily functions reinforce silence around sanitation. Women are expected to “adjust” rather than demand solutions.

Sociologically, sanitation reflects gender inequality, caste hierarchy, and class disparity. Solving sanitation is not just about toilets—it’s about dismantling these structural inequalities.

Government Sanitation Policies in Rural India: Achievements and Gaps

Over the last decade, India has made significant investments in rural sanitation. Programs like the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) and Jal Jeevan Mission have changed the sanitation landscape. Yet, for women in rural India, many gaps remain.

Key Sanitation Policies and Achievements

Swachh Bharat Mission (Gramin): It was launched in 2014 to make India open defecation free (ODF). Over 100 million toilets are built in rural areas. It improved awareness about hygiene and cleanliness.
Jal Jeevan Mission: It focuses on providing tap water to every rural household. It aims to reduce women’s burden of water collection and ensure functional toilets.
Women-Centric State Programs: Initiatives like Kerala’s Kudumbashree and Maharashtra’s toilet-at-home schemes involve women in decision-making. Community-led sanitation improves sustainability.

Major Gaps in Policy Implementation

Focus on Numbers, Not Usage: Success is often measured by toilets constructed, not whether they are used. Many toilets remain non-functional due to poor design or lack of water.
Gender-Insensitive Design: Limited focus on menstrual hygiene management. Many rural toilets lack privacy, lighting, or disposal facilities for women.
Poor Maintenance and Monitoring: No long-term plan for cleaning, repairs, and waste management. Families revert to open defecation when toilets break down.
Social and Cultural Barriers: Behavior change campaigns fail to address patriarchal norms and caste inequalities. Women’s voices are rarely included in sanitation planning.

Government schemes have improved sanitation coverage, but quality, gender sensitivity, and sustainability remain weak points. A women-centric, community-driven approach is the key to bridging these gaps.

Effective sanitation policy must go beyond targets and numbers. It must ensure inclusive participation, maintenance, and women-led decision-making.

The Way Forward for Sanitation in Rural India: A Women-Centered Approach

To make rural sanitation effective and sustainable in 2025 and beyond, India must shift focus from toilet construction to gender-sensitive solutions. Women are at the heart of this issue, so policies and practices should reflect their unique needs.

Key Strategies for the Future

Build Gender-Sensitive Toilets: Toilets must include privacy, proper lighting, running water, and menstrual waste disposal bins. Designing with women in mind ensures higher usage and dignity.
Promote Women-Led Sanitation Models: Encourage self-help groups (SHGs) and women’s cooperatives to manage toilets and sanitation campaigns. Empowering women creates ownership and accountability.
Ensure Safe Water Supply: Reliable tap water under the Jal Jeevan Mission is essential for toilet usability. Without water, even well-built toilets remain unused.
Focus on Behavioral Change: Awareness programs must address menstrual taboos, patriarchy, and caste-based restrictions. Using local leaders and women ambassadors can change community mindsets.
Leverage Technology and Innovation: Promote eco-friendly, low-cost, and waterless toilets in water-scarce regions. Introduce cost-effective menstrual hygiene products for rural women.
Adopt an Intersectional Approach: Prioritize sanitation for marginalized women—Dalits, Adivasis, and the poorest households. Sanitation policies should address both equity and accessibility.

The way forward is clear: sanitation must be treated not just as an infrastructure project but as a women’s rights and social justice issue. By empowering women and involving communities, rural India can ensure that sanitation is safe, sustainable, and inclusive for all.

Conclusion: Sanitation as Social Justice

Sanitation is not just about toilets; it’s about dignity, safety, equality, and justice. For rural women in India, the absence of proper sanitation in 2025 means compromised health, interrupted education, unsafe mobility, and reinforced inequalities.

By analyzing sanitation sociologically, we see that it is tied with patriarchy, caste, class, and gender discrimination. While government schemes have made progress, the journey is far from over.

If India is to achieve true rural development, it must recognize that sanitation is not an infrastructure project but a women’s rights issue.

Empowering women through sanitation will not only improve health but also education, safety, and equality—laying the foundation for a just and dignified future.